Setting yourself up for success: access patterns matter
What are some of design decisions that could affect how you implement a networking solution? You immediately begin to list down a few:
- programmability
- available memory
- available processors
- available bandwidth
This looks like a great list. We want something which is easy enough to program, and is fairly high spec. But, this list fails. What we've done here is only look at the server. That might be all we can control in a web application, but what about distributed systems that we have full control over, like sensor networks?
Let's say we have 10,000 devices that want to update you with their latest sensor readings, which they take each minute. Now, we could use a high-end server that holds concurrent connections with all of the devices.
However, even if you had an extremely high-end server, you could still be finding yourself with performance troubles. If the devices all use the same clock, and all attempt to send data at the top of the minute, then the server would be doing lots of CPU work for 1-2 seconds of each minute and nothing for the rest. Extremely inefficient.
As we have control over the sensors, we could ask them to load balance themselves. One approach would be to give each device an ID, and then use the modulus operator to only send data at the right time per minute:
import time
def main(device_id):
data = None
second_to_send = device_id % 60
while 1:
time_now = time.localtime().tm_sec
if time_now == 0:
data = read_sensors()
if time_now == second_to_send and data:
send(data)
time.sleep(1)
One consequence of this type of load balancing is that we no longer need such a high powered server. The memory and CPU we thought we needed to maintain connections with everyone is not required.
What I'm trying to say here is that you should make sure that your particular solution focuses on the whole problem. With the brief description you have provided, it doesn't seem like we need to maintain huge numbers of connections the whole time. However, let's say we do need to have 100% connectivity. What options do we have?
Non-blocking networking
The effect of non-blocking I/O means that functions that are asking a file descriptor for data when there is none return immediately. For networking, this could potentially be bad as a function attempting to read from a socket will return no data to the caller. Therefore, it can be a lot simpler sometimes to spawn a thread and then call read. That way blocking inside the thread will not affect the rest of the program.
The problems with threads include memory inefficiency, latency involved with thread creation and computational complexity associated with context switching.
To take advantage of non-blocking I/O, you could protentially poll every relevant file descriptor in a while 1: loop. That would be great, except for the fact that the CPU would run at 100%.
To avoid this, event-based libraries have been created. They will run the CPU at 0% when there is no work to be done, activating only when data is to be read to send. Within the Python world, Twisted, Tornado or gevent are big players. However, there are many options. In particular, diesel looks attractive.
Here's the relevant extract from the Tornado web page:
Because it is non-blocking and uses epoll or kqueue, it can handle thousands of simultaneous standing connections, which means it is ideal for real-time web services.
Each of those options takes a slightly different approach. Twisted and Tornado are fairly similar in their approach, relying on non-blocking operations. Tornado is focused on web applications, whereas the Twisted community is interested in networking more broadly. There is subsequently more tooling for non-HTTP communications.
gevent is different. The library modifies the socket calls, so that each connection runs in an extremely lightweight thread-like context, although in effect this is hidden from you as a programmer. Whenever there is a blocking call, such as a database query or other I/O, gevent will switch contexts very quickly.
The upshot of each of these options is that you are able to serve many clients within a single OS thread.
Tweaking the server
Your operating system imposes limits on the number of connections that it will allow. You may hit these limits if you reach the numbers you're talking about. In particular, Linux maintains limits for each user in /etc/security/limits.conf. You can access your user's limits by calling ulimit in the shell:
$ ulimit -a
core file size (blocks, -c) 0
data seg size (kbytes, -d) unlimited
scheduling priority (-e) 0
file size (blocks, -f) unlimited
pending signals (-i) 63357
max locked memory (kbytes, -l) 64
max memory size (kbytes, -m) unlimited
open files (-n) 1024
pipe size (512 bytes, -p) 8
POSIX message queues (bytes, -q) 819200
real-time priority (-r) 0
stack size (kbytes, -s) 8192
cpu time (seconds, -t) unlimited
max user processes (-u) 63357
virtual memory (kbytes, -v) unlimited
file locks (-x) unlimited
I have emboldened the most relevant line here, that of open files. Open external connections are considered to be open files. Once that 1024 limit is hit, no application will be able to open another file, nor will any more clients be able to connect to your server. Let's say you have a user, httpd as your web server. This should provide you with an idea of the modifications you could make to raise that limit:
httpd soft nofile 20480
httpd hard nofile 20480
For extremely high volumes, you may hit system-wide limits. You can view them through cat /proc/sys/fs/file-max:
$ cat /proc/sys/fs/file-max
801108
To modify this limit, use sudo sysctl -w fs.file-max=n, where n is the number of open files you wish to permit. Modify /etc/sysctl.conf to have this survive reboots.
